The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave

The year of 2020 has come near and Malaysia is in need of highly committed, competitive, productivity and efficient work forces to fulfil its Vision 2020 program. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of HRM practices toward intention to leave and to investigate the influence of organi...

Full description

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Main Author: Nurellman, Ismail
Format: Thesis
Language:eng
eng
Published: 2014
Subjects:
Online Access:https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/1/s810135.pdf
https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/2/s810135_abstract.pdf
Tags: Add Tag
No Tags, Be the first to tag this record!
id my-uum-etd.5110
record_format uketd_dc
institution Universiti Utara Malaysia
collection UUM ETD
language eng
eng
advisor Sri Ramalu, Subramaniam
topic HF5549-5549.5 Personnel Management
Employment
spellingShingle HF5549-5549.5 Personnel Management
Employment
Nurellman, Ismail
The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
description The year of 2020 has come near and Malaysia is in need of highly committed, competitive, productivity and efficient work forces to fulfil its Vision 2020 program. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of HRM practices toward intention to leave and to investigate the influence of organization commitment as a mediator in the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave among lecturers in various public universities in northern Malaysia. Internet survey questionnaires were sent using e – mail to 221 respondents working as lecturers in the public universities. Statistical Package software for Social Science (SPSS) Version 19.0 to analyze the data gathered. Pearson’s Correlation analysis was done to examine the relationship between all variable and was found that all HRM practices and organizational commitment have significant negative relationship with intention to leave. Multiple regressions analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses. It was found that not only HRM practices decrease employee’s intention to leave, the results also show that this relationship was partially mediated by organizational commitment. It is also suggested for the future research to include some other HRM practices that was not include in this study to examine its influence toward intention to leave. It is also recommendable to examine these relationships in other settings outside of academic sector
format Thesis
qualification_name masters
qualification_level Master's degree
author Nurellman, Ismail
author_facet Nurellman, Ismail
author_sort Nurellman, Ismail
title The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
title_short The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
title_full The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
title_fullStr The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
title_full_unstemmed The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave
title_sort mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between hrm practices and intention to leave
granting_institution Universiti Utara Malaysia
granting_department Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business
publishDate 2014
url https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/1/s810135.pdf
https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/2/s810135_abstract.pdf
_version_ 1747827864071307264
spelling my-uum-etd.51102016-04-17T07:00:47Z The mediating effect of organizational commitment on the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave 2014 Nurellman, Ismail Sri Ramalu, Subramaniam Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business HF5549-5549.5 Personnel Management. Employment The year of 2020 has come near and Malaysia is in need of highly committed, competitive, productivity and efficient work forces to fulfil its Vision 2020 program. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of HRM practices toward intention to leave and to investigate the influence of organization commitment as a mediator in the relationship between HRM practices and intention to leave among lecturers in various public universities in northern Malaysia. Internet survey questionnaires were sent using e – mail to 221 respondents working as lecturers in the public universities. Statistical Package software for Social Science (SPSS) Version 19.0 to analyze the data gathered. Pearson’s Correlation analysis was done to examine the relationship between all variable and was found that all HRM practices and organizational commitment have significant negative relationship with intention to leave. Multiple regressions analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses. It was found that not only HRM practices decrease employee’s intention to leave, the results also show that this relationship was partially mediated by organizational commitment. It is also suggested for the future research to include some other HRM practices that was not include in this study to examine its influence toward intention to leave. It is also recommendable to examine these relationships in other settings outside of academic sector 2014 Thesis https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/ https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/1/s810135.pdf text eng validuser https://etd.uum.edu.my/5110/2/s810135_abstract.pdf text eng public masters masters Universiti Utara Malaysia Agarwala, T. (2003). Innovative Human Resource Practices and Organizational Commitment: An Empirical Investigation. International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol. 14(2), 175-197. Ahmad, K., & Bakar, R. (2003). The association between training and organizational commitment among white-collar workers in Malaysia. International Journal of Training & Development Vol. 7, 166-185. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour. Prentice Hall. Allen, N., & Meyer, J. (1990). The Measurement and Antecedents of Affective, Continuance and Normative Commitment. Journal of Occupational Psychology Vol. 63(1), 1-18. Amuedo-Dorantes, C., & Mach, T. (2003). Performance pay and fringe benefits: Work incentives or compensating wage differentials? International Journal of Manpower Vol 24(6), 673-698. Amuedo-Dorantes, C., & Mach, T. (2003). Performance pay and fringe benefits: Work incentives or compensating wage differentials? International Journal of Manpower Vol. 24(6), 673-698. Angel, H., & Perry, J. (1983). Organizational Commitment: Individual and Organizational Influences. Work and Occupations Vol. 10 2), 123-146. Arnold, H., & Feldman, D. (1982). A Multivariate Analysis of the Determinants of Job Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 67(3), 350-360. Arthur, J. (1994). Effects of Human Resource Systems on Manufacturing Performance and Turnover. Academy of Management Journal Vol. 37, 670-687. Balkin, D., & Gomez - Mejia, L. (1990). Matching Compensation and Organizational Strategies. Strategic Management Journal Vol 11 (2), 153-169. Bank/EPU, W. (2007). Malaysia and the Knowledge Economy: Building a World Class Higher Education System. Human Development Sector Reports East Asia and the Pacific Region. World Bank. Barak, M., Nissly, J., & Levin, A. (2001). Antecedents to Retention and Turnover among ChildWelfare, Social Work, and Other Human Service Employees: What Can We Learn from Past Research? A Review and Metanalysis. Social Service Review Vol. 75, 625-661. Baron, R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The Moderator–Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol. 51, 1173-1182. Bartlett, K. (2001). The Relationship between Training and Organizational Commitment: A Study in the Health Care Field. Human Resource Development Quarterly Vol. 12, No. 4, 335-352. Batt, R., Doellgast, V., Kwon, H., Nopany, M., Nopany, P., & Da Costa, A. (2005). The Indian Call Center Industry: National Benchmarking Report Strategy, HR Practices, & Performance. Bergmann, T., & Scarpello, V. (2001). Compensation Decision Making 4th edition. Texas: Cengage Learning. Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York. Branham, L. (2005). The 7 hidden reasons employees leave – How to Recognize the Subtle signs and act before it’s too late. New York: Amacom. Brown, M., & Heywood, J. (2005). Performance appraisal system: determinants and change. British Journal of Industrial Relations Vol. 43(4), 659-679. Brum, S. (2010). What Impact Does Training have on Employee Commitment and Employee Turnover. Budhwar, P., Varma, A., Singh, V., & Dhar, R. (2006). HRM Systems of Indian Call Centres: An Exploratory Study. International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 17 (5), 881-997. Carmeli, A., & Weisberg, J. (2006). Exploring Turnover Intentions among Three Professional Groups of Employees,. Human Resource Development Journal, Vol. 9(2), 191-206. Chan, M., Luk, A., Leong, S., Yeung, S., & Van, I. (2008). Factors influencing Macao nurses’ intention to leave current employment. Journal of Clinical Nursing Vol. 18, 893-901. Chang, P., & Cheng, W. (2002). The Effect of Human Resource Management Practices on Firm Performance: Empirical Evidence from High-tech Firms in Taiwan. International Journal of Management, 622-631. Coyle-Shapiro, J., Morrow, P., Richardson, R., & Dunn, S. (2002). Using Profitsharing to Enhance Employee Attitudes: A Longitudinal Examination of the Effects on Trust and Commitment. Human Resource Management Vol 41(4), 423-438. Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches 2nd Edition. Sage. Dowling, P., & Welch, D. (2005). International human resource management: Managing people in an international context 4th edition. Mason, OH: South-Western. Edgar, F., & Geare, A. (2005). HRM Practice and Employee Attitudes: Different Measures Different Results. Personnel Review Vol. 34 (5), 534-549. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 71, 500-507. Elvira, M., & Davila, A. (2005). Managing Human Resources in Latin America: An Agenda for International Leaders. Routledge, London. EPU. (25 August, 2010). Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMKe - 10). Retrieved 13 November, 2013, from Economic Planning Unit: http://www.epu.gov.my/rmkesepuluh. Gellatly, I., Hunter, K., Currie, L., & Irving, P. (2009). HRM practices and organizational commitment profiles. International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol. 20, 869 - 884. Ghiselli, R., La Lopa, J., & Bai, B. (2001). Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction, and Turnover Intent. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly Vol. 42 (2), pp. 28 - 37. Giauque, D., Resenterra, F., & Siggen, M. (2010). The relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment of knowledge workers: Facts obtained from Swiss SMEs. Human Resource Development International Vol. 13, 185 - 205. Goh, L. (19 February, 2012). Why job - hoppers hop. Sunday Star. Malaysia: The Star. Gouldner, A. (1960). The Norm of Reciprocity: A Preliminary Statement. American Sociological Review Vol. 25, 161 - 178. Graham, C. M., & Nafukho, F. M. (2010). Organizational commitment and workplace outcomes: A conceptual model for truckload transportation carriers. Human Resource Development Review, Vol 9(3), 266 - 284. Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. (2000). Behaviors in Organizations. Prentice Hall. Guchait, P., & Cho, S. (2010). The impact of human resource management practices on intention to leave of employees in the service industry in India: the mediating role of organizational commitment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol. 21 (8), 1228 1247. Hair, J., Babin, B., Money, A., & Samouel, P. (2003). Essential of Business Research Methods. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons. Han, S., Sohn, I., & Kim, N. (2009). New nurse turnover intention and influencing factors. Journal of Korean Academy of Nurses Vol. 39, No. 6, 878 - 887. Hasselhorn, H., Tackenberg, P., & Muller, B. (2005). NEXT scientific Report July 2005. Retrieved 25 October, 2013, from http://www.econbiz.de/archiv1/2008/53602_nurses_ work_europe.pdf. Hasselhorn, H., Tackenberg, P., & Muller, B. (Nurses Early Exit Study, Report 7: 2003. A Research Project Initiated by SALTSA (Joint Programme for Working Life Research in Europe) and Funded by the European Commission (QLK6-CT-2001-00475). Working Life Research Report 7:2003.). Working Conditions and Intention to Leave Profession Among Nursing Staff in Europe. Stockholm, Sweden 2003: 258.: National Institute for Working Life. Hemdi, M., & Nasurdin, A. (2006). Predicting Turnover Intentions of Hotel Employees: The Influence of Employee Development Human Resource Management Practices and Trust in Organization. Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business Vol. 8 (1), 21 - 42. Herzberg, F. (1966). Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland: OH: World. Hopkins, W. (4 May, 2000). Quantitative Research Design. Retrieved 15 October, 2013, from SportScience: http://www.sportsci.org/jour/ 0001/wghdesign.html. Houlihan, M. (2004). Tensions and Variations in Call Centre Management Strategies. Call Centres and Human Resource Management: A Cross-national Perspective. Huselid, M. (1995). The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity and Corporate Financial Performance. Academy of Management Journal Vol. 38 (3), 635 - 672. Hussin, S., Yaacob, H., & Ismail, A. (2008). Agenda pembangunan universiti awam di Malaysia: Kesamaan dan perbezaan tindakan. Pendidik dan Pendidikan Vol. 23, 1 - 27. Idris, M. (2009). Occupational stress in academic life: A study on academics of Malaysian Public Universities. Johari, J., Yahya, K. K., & Ahmad, M. N. (2012). UNDERSTANDING THE INFLUENCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON INTENTION TO STAY: EVIDENCE FROM MALAYSIA. 3rd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (3rd ICBER 2012) PROCEEDING. Bandung. Jones, M., Jones, R., Latreille, P., & Sloane, P. (2004). Training, Job Satisfaction and Workplace Performance in Britain: Evidence from WERS 2004. IZA Discussion Paper No. 3677. Kain, E. (3 8, 2011). High Teacher Turnover Rates are a Big Problem for America’s Public Schools. Retrieved 3 12, 2013, from Forbes: http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2011/03/08/ high-teacher-turnover-rates-are-abig-problem- for-americas-public-schools/. Kinman, G. (2001). Pressure Points: A Review Research on Stressor and Strains in UK Academics. Educational Psychology Vol. 21, 473 - 492. Kooij, D., Jansen, P., Dikkers, J., & De Lange, A. (2010). The influence of age on the associations between HR practices and both affective commitment and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol. 31, 1111 - 1136. Krausz, M., Koslowsky, M., Shalom, N., & Elyakim, N. (1995). Predictors of intentions to leave the ward, the hospital, and the nursing profession: a longitudinal study. Journal of Organizational Behaviours Vol. 16 (3), 277 - 288. Krishnan, S., & Singh, M. (2010). Outcomes of intention to quit of Indian IT professionals. Human Resource Management Vol. 49 (3), 421 - 437. Kristof, A. (1996). Person-Organization fit: an integrative review of its conceptualization, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology Vol. 49, 1 - 49. Lam, T., & Zhang, H. (2003). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the Hong Kong fast food industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol. 15 (4), 214 - 229. Lavoie-Tremblay, M., Wright, D., Desforges, N., Gelinas, C., Marchionni, C., & Drevniok, U. (2008). Greating a healthy workplace for nëw-genëratiôft'nufses. Journal of Nursing Scholarship Vol 40 (3), 290 - 297. Lee, T., & Mitchell, T. (1994). An Alternative Approach: The Unfolding Model of Voluntary Employee Turnover. Academy of Management Review Vo. 19, 51 - 89. Lee, T., Mitchell, T., Holtom, B., McDaniel, L., & Hill, J. (1999). The Unfolding Model of Voluntary Turnover A Replication and Extension. Academy of Management Journal Vol. 42, 450 - 462. Loi, R., Hang-yue, N., & Foley, S. (2006). Linking Employees’ Justice Perceptions to Organizational Commitment and Intention to Leave: The Mediating Role of Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Vol. 79, 101 - 120. Loscocco, K. (1990). Reactions to Blue-Collar Work: A Comparison of Women and Men. Work and Occupations Vol. 17(2), 152 - 177. Lowry, D., Simon, A., & Kimberley, N. (2002). Toward improved employment relations practices of casual employees in the New South Wales registered clubs industry. Human Resource Development Quarterly Vol. 13 (1), 53 - 70. Malhotra, N., Budhwar, P., & Prowse, P. (2007). Linking rewards to commitment: an empirical investigation of four UK call centres. International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol. 18 (12), 2095 - 2127. Maniam, V. (1999). ANTECEDENTS, OUTCOMES AND CONTROLS OF STAFF TURNOVER IN SELECTED HOTELS IN MALAYSIA. Mathieu, J., & Zajac, D. (1990). A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates and Consequences of Organizational Commitment. Psychological Bulletin Vol. 108(2), 171 - 194. Meyer, J., & Allen, N. (1991). A Three-Component Conceptualization of Organizational Commitment. Human Resource Management Review Vol. 1 (1), 61 - 89. Meyer, J., & Smith, C. (2000). HRM Practices and Organizational Commitment: Test of a Mediation Model. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences Vo. 17 (4), 319 - 331. Meyer, J., Allen, N., & Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to Organizations and Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three Component Conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 78 (4), 538 - 551. Miller, J., & Wheeler, K. (1992). Unraveling the mysteries of gender differences in intentions to leave the organization. Journal of Organizational Behavour Vol. 13 (5), 465 - 478. Mobley, W. (1982). Intermediate linkages in the relationships between job satisfaction and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 62 (2), 237 - 240. MoHE. (n.d.). National Higher Education Action Plan 2007 - 2010. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Minestry of Higher Education. MoHE. (2007a). Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara Melangkau Tahun 2020. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Minestry of Higher Education. Morrell, K. (2005). Towards a typology of nursing turnover: the role of shocks in nurses’ decision to leave. Journal of Advanced Nursing Vol. 49 (3), 315 - 322. Mottaz, C. (1988).Determinants of Organizational Commitment. Human Relations Vol. 41 (6), 467 - 482. Mowday, R., Porter, L., & Steers, R. (1982). Organizational Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism and Turnover. San Diego, Calirfornia: Academic Press. Negara, L. A. (1 January, 2006). Lembaga Akreditasi Negara Act 1996. Law of Malaysia Act 556 . THE COMMISSIONER OF LAW REVISION, MALAYSIA. Ng, J. (7 November, 2008). Lecturer may get less leave. Retrieved 12 November, 2013, from Asiaone education: http://news.asiaone.com/News/Education/Story/ A1Story20081105-98465.html. Noe, R. (2008). Employee Training and Development. McGraw-Hill. Owen, P. (2006). ne More Reason Not to Cut your Training Tudget: Relationship between Training d Organisational Outcomes. Public Personnel Management Vol. 35 (2), 163 - 171. Owoyemi, O. A., Oyelere, M., Elegbede, T., & Gbajumo-Sheriff, M. (2011). Enhancing Employees’ Commitment to Organisation through Training. International Journal of Business and Management Vol. 6 (7), 280 - 286. Patrick, F., Derek, R., Scott, T., Mark, A., Morela, H., & Michelle, R. (2007). RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN EMPLOYEE RETENTION: ARE DIVERSITY CLIMATE PERCEPTIONS THE KEY? Personnel Psychology Vol. 60, 35 - 62. (2007). Pelan Tindakan Pengajian Tinggi Negara 2007 - 2010. Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia. Polgar, S., & Thomas, S. (2000). Introduction to Research in the Health Science 4th Edition. London: Churchill Livingstone. Porter, L., Steer, R., Mowday, R., & Boulian, P. (1974). Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction and Turnover among Psychiatric Technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 59, 603 - 609. Poulston, J. (2008). Hospitality workplace problems and poor training: a close relationship. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol. 20 (4), 412 - 427. Robbins, D. (1998). Fundamentals of Management 6th edition. Pearson Publishing. Rosin, H., & Korabik, K. (1995). izational experiences and propensity to leave: A multivariate investigation of men and women managers. . Journal of Vocational Behavior Vol. 46, 1 - 16. Rust, R., Stewart, G., Miller, H., & Pielack, D. (1996). The Satisfaction and Retention of Frontline Employees: A Customer Satisfaction Measurement Approach. International Journal of Service Industry Management Vol. 7 (5), 62 - 80. Schalk, R., & Rijckevorsel, A. (2007). Factors influencing absenteeism and intention to leave in call centre. Journal of New Technology, Work and Employment Vol. 22(3), 260 - 274. Schlesinger, L. A., & Heskett, J. L. (1991). Breaking the Cycle of Failure in Services. MIT Sloan Management Review Vol. 33 No. 3, 17 - 28. Sekaran, U. (2003). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Shore, L., Thornton, G., & Newton, L. (1990). Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment as Predictors of Behavioral Intentions and Employee Behavior. Academy of Management Proceedings, 229 - 233. Sirat, M. (2009). Strategic Planning Directions of Malaysia Higher Education: Univercity Autonomy in the Midst of Political Uncertainties. Springer Science Business Media. Siu, O. (2002). Predictors of job satisfaction and absenteeism in two samples of Hong Kong nurses. Journal of Advance Nursing Vol. 40, 219 - 229. Snell, S., & Bohlander, G. (2010). Principle of Human resource Management. Cengage Learning. Staw, B. (1980). The consequences of turnover. Journal of Occupational Behavior Vol 1, 253-273. Steel, R., & Ovalle, N. (1984). Review and Meta-analysis of Research on the Relationship between Behavioral Intentions and Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 673 - 686. Steers, R., & Porter, L. (1991). Motivation and Work Behavior 5th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Storey, J., & Sisson, K. (1993). Managing Human Resources and Industrial Relations. Buckingham: Open University Press. Stuenkal, D., Nguyen, S., & Cohen, J. (2007). Nurses' perceptions of their work envirorunent. Journal of Nursing Care QualityVol. 22 (4), 337 - 342. Taylor, C. (December, 2002). Focus on talent. Training and Development, 26 - 31. Taylor, P., & Bain, P. (1999). An Assembly Line in the Head: The Call Centre Labor Process. Industrial Relations Journal, Vol. 30, 2, 101 - 117. The Malaysian Higher Education System – An Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved 3 September, 2013, from Studymalaysia.com: http://www.studymalaysia .com/education/art_education.php?id=nationaledu2 Trevor, C., Barry, G., & Boudreau, J. (1997). Voluntary turnover and job performance: Curvilinearity and the moderating influences of salary growth and promotions. Journal of Applied Psychology Vol 82 (1), 44 - 61. Ucho, A., Mkavga, T., & Onyishi, I. E. (2012). Job Satisfaction, Gender, Tenure, and Turnover Intentions among Civil Servants in Benue State. Interdisiplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business Vol. 3, No. 11, 378 - 387. Vandenberg, R., & Nelson, J. (1999). Disaggregating the motives underlying turnover intentions: when do intentions predict turnover behaviour? Human Relations, Vol. 52 (10), 1313- 1336. Warech, M., & Tracey, J. (2004). Evaluating the Impact of Human Resources: Identifying What Matters. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly Vol. 45 (4), 376 - 387. Weisberg, J., & Kirschenbaum, A. (1991). Employee Turnover Intentions: Implications from a National Sample. International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol. 2 (3), 359 - 375. Withers, P. (2001). Retention strategies that respond to worker values. Workforce Vol. 80 (17), 37 - 44. Yap, M., Holmes, M., Hannan, C., & Cukier, W. (2010). The relationship between diversity training, organizational commitment, and career satisfaction. Journal of European Industrial Training, 519 - 538. Young, B., Worchel, S., & Woehr, D. (1998). Organizational Commitment among Public Service Employees. Public Personnel Management Vol. 27 (3), 339 - 348.