News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model

News framing study impacts on public opinions and behaviours formation have been severally established. However, its influence on ethnic conflicts which have remained a challenge have not received adequate attention. Despite that the erstwhile causes identified and solutions offered have not really...

Full description

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Main Author: Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq
Format: Thesis
Language:eng
eng
Published: 2016
Subjects:
Online Access:https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/1/s94407_01.pdf
https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/2/s94407_02a.pdf
Tags: Add Tag
No Tags, Be the first to tag this record!
id my-uum-etd.6229
record_format uketd_dc
institution Universiti Utara Malaysia
collection UUM ETD
language eng
eng
advisor Mohammed, Rosli
Ahmad, Mohd. Khairie
topic JA Political science (General)
spellingShingle JA Political science (General)
Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq
News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
description News framing study impacts on public opinions and behaviours formation have been severally established. However, its influence on ethnic conflicts which have remained a challenge have not received adequate attention. Despite that the erstwhile causes identified and solutions offered have not really helped in the containment mostly in multiethnic societies. Based on this, the need for a new approach to investigate news framing and conflict behaviours has become imperative. This therefore was the impetus for this study’s exploration and examination of the ethnic conflict motives and stimulants for conflict behaviours which is the main helix. The study explored the waves of news frames on ethnic conflict through a mixed methods design. The indepth interview with 26 informants residents in Kwara State, North Central Nigeria was used, while content analysis of three major newspapers in Nigeria was applied to complement the collection of data. The interview data was analyzed thematically while the content analysis was analysed descriptively. The results showed that ethnic group leaders are the main protagonists in the pathway to ethnic conflict while newspaper framing stimulates ethnic differences through conflict oriented framing. The study has significantly contributed fresh and up-to-date angles to the overall perspectives of how newspapers frames have been directly and indirectly influencing ethnic conflict. In addition the possible solutions have been proposed. The study concludes that structural factors (political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, and inequality) and how newspapers frame ethnic issues are the reasons for the intractable conflict behaviours and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria.This study proposed a model to guide the ethnic conflict pathways understanding and solution strategies for multiethnic societies to manage ethnic conflict.
format Thesis
qualification_name Ph.D.
qualification_level Doctorate
author Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq
author_facet Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq
author_sort Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq
title News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
title_short News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
title_full News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
title_fullStr News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
title_full_unstemmed News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model
title_sort news framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: etnic conflict pathways model
granting_institution Universiti Utara Malaysia
granting_department Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Arts & Sciences
publishDate 2016
url https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/1/s94407_01.pdf
https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/2/s94407_02a.pdf
_version_ 1747828040871706624
spelling my-uum-etd.62292017-05-09T16:01:05Z News framing of ethno-political issues and conflict behaviours: Etnic conflict pathways model 2016 Muhammed, Adisa Rasaq Mohammed, Rosli Ahmad, Mohd. Khairie Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Arts & Sciences Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Arts and Sciences JA Political science (General) News framing study impacts on public opinions and behaviours formation have been severally established. However, its influence on ethnic conflicts which have remained a challenge have not received adequate attention. Despite that the erstwhile causes identified and solutions offered have not really helped in the containment mostly in multiethnic societies. Based on this, the need for a new approach to investigate news framing and conflict behaviours has become imperative. This therefore was the impetus for this study’s exploration and examination of the ethnic conflict motives and stimulants for conflict behaviours which is the main helix. The study explored the waves of news frames on ethnic conflict through a mixed methods design. The indepth interview with 26 informants residents in Kwara State, North Central Nigeria was used, while content analysis of three major newspapers in Nigeria was applied to complement the collection of data. The interview data was analyzed thematically while the content analysis was analysed descriptively. The results showed that ethnic group leaders are the main protagonists in the pathway to ethnic conflict while newspaper framing stimulates ethnic differences through conflict oriented framing. The study has significantly contributed fresh and up-to-date angles to the overall perspectives of how newspapers frames have been directly and indirectly influencing ethnic conflict. In addition the possible solutions have been proposed. The study concludes that structural factors (political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, and inequality) and how newspapers frame ethnic issues are the reasons for the intractable conflict behaviours and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria.This study proposed a model to guide the ethnic conflict pathways understanding and solution strategies for multiethnic societies to manage ethnic conflict. 2016 Thesis https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/ https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/1/s94407_01.pdf text eng validuser https://etd.uum.edu.my/6229/2/s94407_02a.pdf text eng public Ph.D. doctoral Universiti Utara Malaysia Abdulbaqi, S.S. (2011). Determining the influence of gender, age and socio-economic status on effective dissemination of health information in Nigeria (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah, Malaysia. Abdullahi, A. A., & Saka, L. (2007). Ethno-Religious and Political Conflicts: Threat to Nigeria Nascent Democracy. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 9(3), 21-36. Aboud, F., & Miller, L. (2007). Promoting peer intervention in name-calling. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(4), 803-819. Adamu, A. (January 2002). Ethnic Conflicts in Nigeria. Retrieved September 6, 2015 from http://www.abdullahiadamu.net/speeches/2ethnic.htm. Adebanwi, W. (2005). "The Carpenter's Revolt: Youth, Violence and the Reinvention of Culture in Nigeria." Journal of Modern African Studies. 2005. 43, No. 3. Adegboye, R., Ubah, C. N., Dogo, B. (2005). Crisis and Conflict Management in Nigeria since 1980: Causes and Dimension of Conflict. Kaduna,: Nigerian Defense Academy. 1. Ademola, F. S. (2011). Theories of social conflict. In Best (ed.), Introduction to peace and conflict studies in West Africa (pp. 35-60). Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited. Adesoji A (2010). The Boko Haram Uprising and Islamic Revivalism in Nigeria. Afr. Spectr., 95-108. Adesoji, A. O., & Alimi, S. (2012). The Nigerian press and the challenge of private newspaper ownership: A study of the Nigerian Tribune, 1949–2009.Journal of African Media Studies, 4(3), 357-376. Adesoji, A. O., & Hahn, H. P. (2011). When (not) to be a proprietor: Nigerian newspaper ownership in a changing polity. African Study Monographs, 32(4), 177-203. Adisa, R. M. (2012). Conflict sensitive journalism and newspaper coverage of Jos conflict. Entrepreneurial Journal of Management Sciences (EJMS), 1, No. 1, 174-188. Adisa, R. M. (2012). Newswriting and reporting for Africa. Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing. Adisa, R. M., & Abdulraheem, M. (2012). Mass Media and Conflicts in Nigeria: A Call for Peace Oriented Journalism. In Adeleke, B. L. & Ijaya, G. T. (eds.) General studies in the social sciences: Some fundamentals topics. General Studies Division, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 14–36. Adisa, R. M., Mohammed, R. & Ahmad, M. K. (2015b). Impact of News frames on ethnic groups’ conflict behaviour. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Social Sciences, 2(4), 1-11. Adisa, R. M., Mohammed, R., & Ahmad, M. K. (2015a). Solution Approach to Newspaper Framing and Ethnic Groups’ Conflict Behaviours. New Media and Mass Communication, 40, 33-41. Agbakwuru, C., & Opara, M. I. (2013). Ethnic prejudice and the problem of peaceful co-existence in Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, 9(5). Agbiboa, D. E. (2013). Ethno-religious Conflicts and the Elusive Quest for National Identity in Nigeria. Journal of Black Studies, 44(1), 3-30. doi: 10.1177/0021934712463147. Agbiboa, D. E., & Maiangwa, B. (2013). Boko Haram, Religious Violence, and the Crisis of National Identity in Nigeria: Towards a Non-killing Approach. Journal of Developing Societies, 29(4), 379-403. doi: 10.1177/0169796x13503198. Agbu, O. (2004). Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria. Nordic Africa Institute Research Report 127, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. Agbu, O. (2004). Ethnic militias and the threat to democracy in post-transition Nigeria, 127. Nordic Africa Institute. Ajayi, J. O. (2014). Resurgence of Ethnic Crises and Instability in Nigeria. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(21), 44-55. Akasike, C. (May 13, 2013). Jonathan: Ex-militants threaten to resume violence in 2015. Punch. Retrieved on January 3, 2014 from http://www.punchng.com/news/jonathan-ex-militants-threaten-to-resumeviolence-in-2015/. Akinfeleye, R. A. (2003). Fourth Estate of the Realm or Fourth Estate of the Wreck: Imperative of Social Responsibility of the Press. Lagos: University of Lagos Press. 37. Akintola, L. (1995). Who is a Fanatic? Al-Madinah, September, 10-18. Analysis.” American Sociological Review 45:76-94. Akinyele, R. T. (2001). Ethnic militancy and national stability in Nigeria: a case study of the Oodua People's Congress. African Affairs, 100(401), 623-640. Alao, D. & Uwom, O. (2012). Terrorism in Nigeria: An Analysis of North/South Media Coverage of Boko Haram (November 2011 to March 2012). International Review of Business and Social Sciences, 1(8), 50-62. Aliagan, I. (2009). “Newspaper News: Whose News? Towards What Pursuit?” In NUJ Herald Reporter’s Handout. The Herald. 6. Allan, S. (1999). News Culture. Buckingham: Open University Press. Alotaibi, N. N. (2013). An Analysis of the Implications of the Growing Tabloidization of News Coverage on Democratic Politics. European Scientific Journal, 9(14). Alulo, O. (2003). Ethnic nationalism & the Nigerian democratic experience in the fourth republic. Anthropologist, 5(4): 253-259. Angaye, G. (2002). Causes and Cures of Conflicts in Nigeria. Thisday. Factiva Inc. Newspapers database. Atif, L. A. (2010). Importance of tolerance. Retrieved May 19, 2015 from http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20101226/opinion/importance-oftolerance.342594. Axinn, W. G., & Pearce, L. D. (2006). Mixed method data collection strategies. Cambridge University Press. Axinn, W. G., Fricke, T. E., & Thornton, A. (1991). The Microdemographic Community-Study Approach Improving Survey Data by Integrating the Ethnographic Method. Sociological Methods & Research, 20(2), 187-217. Aydin, Y. N. (2007). From conflict to violence: Why ethnic conflicts become violent (Doctoral Dissertation Thesis) Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis. (9780494413814). Babawale, T. (2001). The rise of ethnic militias, delegitimisation of the state, and the threat to Nigerian federalism. West African Review 3, 1. African Resource Centre, Inc. Bagaji, Y. S. A. (2010). Growing Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Challenge of" One" Nigeria: Politics of State Building in a Multiethnic Society, 1960-2010. Ban, H. (2008). Covering the Crisis in Somalia: Framing Choices by The New York Times and The Manchester Guardian. In Reese, S. D., Gandy Jr, O. H., & Grant, A. E. (Eds.). Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world. Routledge. Bantimaroudis, P., & Ban, H. (2001). Covering the crisis in Somalia: Framing choices by the New York Times and the Manchester Guardian. Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world, 175-184. Baran, S. J. & Davis, D. K. (2009). Mass communication theory: foundations, ferment, and future (5th edition). Boston, M.A.:Wadsworth cengage learning. Barkindo, A. (May, 2013). Impunity and Boko Haram in north-eastern Nigeria. Insight on conflict. Retrieved August 21, 2015 from http://www.insightonconflict.org/2013/05/impunity-boko-haram-nigeria/. Barnes, S. R. (2008). Understanding social media from the media ecological perspective. In Konijin, E.A. Et al. (eds.) (2008). Mediated interpersonal communication. New York: Routledge. 14. Baron, D. P. (2006). Persistent media bias. Journal of Public Economics, 90(1), 1-36. Barongo, Y. R. (1987). Ethnic pluralism and democratic stability: the basis of conflict and consensus, in S. E. Oyovbaire (ed.), Democratic Experiments in Nigeria: Interpretive Essays. Benin City: Omega Publishers, 65-80. Bartels, L. M. (1993). Messages Received: The Political Impact of Media Exposure. American Political Science Review 87(2):267-85. Barth, F. (1969). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference. London: George Allen and Unwin. Barth, F. (1998). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Balancing Creativity and Constraints. New York, NY: St. Martin‟s Press. Bartos, O. J., & Wehr, P. (2002). Using conflict theory. Cambridge University Press. Basit, T. (2003). Manual or electronic? The role of coding in qualitative data analysis. Educational research, 45(2), 143-154. Bassil, V. (2014). Peace Journalism: A Needed, Desirable and Practicable Reform. University for Peace and Conflict Monitor. Retrieved on May 12, 2015 from: http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg. Bates, R. H., Epstein, D. L., Goldstone, J. A., Gurr, T. R., Harff, B., Kahl, C. H., Levy, M. A., Lustik, M., Marshall, M. J., Parris, T. M., Ulfelder, J. & Woodward, M. R. (2003). Political Instability Task Force Report: Phase IV Findings. Baum, M. A., & Zhukov, Y. M. (2012). What Determines the News About Foreign Policy? Newspaper Ownership, Crisis Dynamics and the 2011 Libyan Uprising. In International Studies Association Annual Meeting. San Diego, California. Baumeister, R.F., & Vohs, K.D. (2007). "Realistic Group Conflict Theory". Encyclopedia of Social Psychology 2: 725–726. Baumgartner, Frank R., Suzanna L. De Boef, and Amber E. Boydstun, (2008). The decline of the death penalty and the discovery of innocence. London: Cambridge University Press. Becker, J. (1981). Communication and peace: the empirical and theoretical relation between two categories in social sciences. Journal of Peace Research 19(3): 227–240. Beckwith, K. (2001). Gender Frames and Collective Action: Configurations of Masculinity in the Pittston Coal Strike. Politics and Society, 29, 297-330. Bennett, W. L., Lawrence, R. G., & Livingston, S. (2006). None dare call it torture: Indexing and the limits of press independence in the Abu Ghraib scandal. Journal of Communication, 56(3), 467-485. Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. Retrieved October 2, 2015 from http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1953-07730-000 Bergman, M. M. (2008). The straw men of the qualitative-quantitative divide and their influence on mixed methods research. In M. M. Bergman (Ed.), Advances in mixed methods research: Theories and applications (pp. 11–22). London, UK: Sage. Bhagat, R. B. (2010). “Access to Basic Amenities in Urban Areas by Size class of Cities and Towns in India. International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai-400088. Biazoto, J. (2011). Peace Journalism where there is no war. Conflict and Communication Online. 10, No. 2. Blalock, H. M. (1989). Power and Conflict. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Bläsi, B. (2004). Peace journalism and the news production process. conflict and communication online 3(1/2). Available at: http://www.cco.regeneronline.de/2004/pdf_2004/ blaesi.pdf (assessed 8 September 2013). Bleiker, R., Campbell, D., Hutchison, E. & Nicholson, X. (2013). The visual dehumanisation of refugees. Australian Journal of Political Science, 48(4), 398-416. Bleiker, R., Campbell, D., Hutchison, E., & Nicholson, X. (2013). The visual dehumanisation of refugees. Australian Journal of Political Science, 48(4), 398-416. Bloomberg, (21 Jan. 2010). “Nigeria orders army to ensure peace in troubled city”. The University of Chicago Press. Bosman, J. & d'Haenens, L. (2008). News reporting on Pim Fortuyn: Framing in two Dutch newspapers Media Culture Society Vol. 30(5): 735–748. DOI: 0.1177/0163443708094018. Bostwana (2012). The citizen economic empowerment policy. Government paper no. 1 of 2012. Republic of Botswana. Boyce, C., & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting in-depth interviews: A guide for designing and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input 3-7. Watertown, MA: Pathfinder International. Brahm, E. (2003). Conflict Stages. In (Eds.) G. Burgess & H. Burgess. Beyond Intractability. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Access 0n 27 October, 2013 from <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/conflict-stages>. Brantner, C., Lobinger, K. & Wetzstein, I. (2011). Effects of Visual Framing on Emotional Responses and Evaluations of News Stories about the Gaza Conflict 2009. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 88(3), 523-540. Bratic, V. & Schirch, L. (2007). Why and When to Use the Media for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding. The Hague, European Centre for Conflict Prevention/. 6: 34. Bratic, V. (2006). "Media effects during violent conflict: Evaluating media contributions to peacebuilding." Conflict and communication online 5(1): 11. Bratić, V. (2006). Media effects during violent conflict: Evaluating media contributions to peace building. Conflict & communication online, 5(1), 1-11. Bres, J. (2006). The Role of the Media in Peace Building. Wellington, National Interfaith Forum: 3. Brewer, P. R. (2001). Value words and lizard brains: Do citizens deliberate about appeals to their core values? Polit. Psychol. 22:45–64. Brian Ferguson, B. (2005). Tribal Warfare and ‘Ethnic’ Conflict. Cultural Survival Quarterly 29, no. 1, 19. Brody, H. (2011). Clarifying conflict of interest. American Journal of Bioethics 11(1): 23–28. CA: Sage, 1994), 26–27, 32. Brown, M. E. (Ed.). (1993). Ethnic conflict and international security. Princeton University Press. Brown, N. J., & Udomisor, I. W. (2015). Evaluation of Political News Reportage in Nigeria’s Vanguard and the Guardian Newspapers. Advances in Journalism and Communication, 3(01), 10. Brubaker, R., Loveman, M. & Stamatov, P. (2004). “Ethnicity as Cognition”, Theory and Society, 33: 31-64. Bryant, J. & Miron, D. (2004). Theory and research in mass communication. Journal of Communication 54(4): 662–704. Busch, C., & Paul, S. De Maret, Teresa Flynn, Rachel Kellum, Sheri Le, Brad Meyers, Matt Saunders, Robert White, & Mike Palmquist..(1994-2012). Content Analysis. Writing@ CSU. Colorado State University. Callanan, G. A., Benzing, C.D., & Perri, D.F. (2006). Choice of conflict-handling strategy: A matter of context. Journal of Psychology, 140, 269-288. Campbell, A. J. (1999). Self-regulation and the media. Federal Communications Law Journal, 51(3). Campbell, J. L., Quincy, C., Osserman, J., & Pedersen, O. K. (2013). Coding In-depth Semi-structured Interviews Problems of Unitization and Inter-coder Reliability and Agreement, Sociological Methods & Research, 42(3), 294-320. Candan, Z. & Reeve, R. (2012). Working with Media to Prevent Conflict: Cluster Synthesis Report. Brussel. Retrieved May 14, 2015 from http://www.ifpew.eu. Capobianco, S., Davis, M. & Kraus, L. (2011). Conflict dynamic profile: individual version feedback. Pat Simple. Retrieved December 3, 2013 from http://www.ggci.com/. Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism. The press and the public good. New York: Oxford University Press. Carment, D., & James, P. (1996). Escalation of ethnic conflict: A survey and Assessment. Carleton University, 1997a [cited 23/02/2005]. Available from www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/papers/escaltati. Carment, D., James, P., & Taydas, Z. (2009). The internationalization of ethnic conflict: state, society, and synthesis. International Studies Review, 11(1), 63-86. Carpenter, S. (2007). U.S. Elite and Non-elite Newspapers' Portrayal of the Iraq War: A Comparison of Frames and Source Use. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 2007 84: 761 DOI: 10.1177/107769900708400407. Carragee, K. M., & Roefs, W. (2004). The neglect of power in recent framing research. Journal of Communication, 54(2), 214-233. Caselli, F., & Coleman, W. J. (2013). On the theory of ethnic conflict. Journal of the European Economic Association, 11(s1), 161-192. CDCMS, (2003). Ethnic Militias and the Future of Democracy in Nigeria. Sesay, A. (eds). Centre for Development and Conflict Management Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University Press. Heinrich Böll Foundation Website. Cederman, L.-E., Gleditsch, K. S., & Hug, S. (2013). Elections and Ethnic Civil War. Comparative Political Studies, 46(3), 387-417. Cerf, V. (2015). The future of Internet regulation: Globalization101. Informilo. Retrieved on June 20, 2015 from: http://www.informilo.com/20090302/ googles-vint-cerf-future-internetregulation-86. Chandler, A. B., Clements, E. C., & Combs, B. T. (2015). While reams of newspaper copy have been written about them, the historical record offers little to mark their roles in the drama of Kentucky and the nation media content (2nd ed.). London: Longman. Chang, P. K., Ahmad, F., & Mahmud, W. A. W. (2010). Indigenising framing knowledge from content-analysing the weblog frames built on chedet. com.Jurnal Komunikasi, 26(1), 47-61. Cheng-Feng, S. (1991). A multivariate model of ethnic diversity and violent political behavior (Doctoral Dissertation Thesis) Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis. (9211220). Chew, C. K., Ahmad, F., Ibrahim, F., & Chang, P. K. (2012). Investigating news framing: a comparative study of media coverage on contemporary education issues in Malaysia. Jurnal Komunikasi; Malaysian Journal of Communication, 28(1), 17-31. Chinenye, S., & Ogbera, A. O. (2013). Socio-cultural aspects of diabetes mellitus in Nigeria. Journal of Social Health and Diabetes, 1(1), 15. Cho, Y. S., Kong, Y., & Lin, H. F. (2004, February). The effect of ownership on content in newspapers. Paper presented at the midwinter conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, New Brunswick, USA. Chomsky, N. (2015). Noam Chomsky Quotes. Retrieved May 20, 2015 from http://noam-chomsky.tumblr.com/ post/13867896307/noam-chomsky-10-strategies-of- manipulation-by media. Chong, D. & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing theory. Annual Review of Political Science 10: 103–126. Chong, D. (2000). Rational Lives: Norms and Values in Politics and Society. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. CNN.Com/World (2007). Militant leader warns: 'We will destroy lives' (February 10). CNN.Com/World: http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/02/06/ nigeria.hostages/ind ex.html. Coe, K., Kenski, K., & Rains, S. A. (2014). Online and uncivil? Patterns and determinants of incivility in newspaper website comments. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 658-679. Colistra, R. (2012). Shaping and Cutting the Media Agenda Television Reporters’ Perceptions of Agenda-and Frame-Building and Agenda-Cutting Influences. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 14(2), 85-146. Collier, P. (2000). Policy for post conflict societies: Reducing the risks of renewed conflict’. Paper prepared for The Economics of Political Violence, March 18-19, 2000. Princeton University/World Bank. Collier, P. (2009). Wars, guns, and votes: Democracy in dangerous places. New York, NY: Harper. Collins, R. (2008). Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory. Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Cooper, A. H. (2002). Media framing and social movement mobilization. German peace protest against INF missiles, the Gulf War and NATO peace enforcement in Bosnia. European Journal of Political Research, 41, 37–80. Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P.S. (2003). Business research methods (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Corbetta, P. (2003). Social Research: Theory, Methods and Techniques, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Corey, A. & Joireman, S. (2004). Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda. African Affairs 103, 79. Coser, L. (1966). Sociological Theory: a Book of Sociological Reading. London: McGraw Hill. 2nd Edition. Cottle, S. (2006). Mediatized Conflict. Buckingham: Open University Press. Craig, W. M., & Pepler, D. J. (2003). Identifying and targeting risk for involvement in bullying and victimization. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 577–582. Crana, (2011). Stages of Conflict Development. Retrieved on 27 October, 2013 from CRANAplushttps://crana.org.au/files/pdfs/Other_45. Cresswell, J. W., & V. L. Plano Clark. (2007). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Fourth Edition. Pearson. Crowder, M. (1978). The story of Nigeria. London: Faber. D’Angelo, P. (2002). News framing as a multi-paradigmatic research program: A response to Entman. Journal of Communication, 52, 870–888. Dahmen, N. S. (2012). Photographic framing in the Stem Cell Debate: Integrating Eye-Tracking Data for a New Dimension of Media Effects Research. American Behavioural Scientist, 56(2), 189-203. Dahmen, N. S., (2014). Watchdog, voyeur or censure?. Journalism Practice, 1-15. Daily Independent (22 February, 2010). Retrieved December 10, 2012 from http//www.dailyindependentnews. Daily Trust (August 30, 2013). Attacks on community. Retrieved on March 12, 2014 from www.trustnewspapernigeria. D'Angelo, P., & Kuypers, J. A. (Eds.). (2010). Doing news framing analysis: Empirical and theoretical perspectives. Routledge. Davis, A. (2000). Regional media in conflict. London, Institute for war and peace building. De Fransius, M. P. (2013). Peace journalism case study: US media coverage of the Iraq War. Journalism. De Lisle, J. (2011). The benefits and challenges of mixing methods and methodologies: Lessons learnt from implementing qualitatively led mixed methods research designs in Trinidad and Tobago. uwispace.sta.uwi.edu. Caribbean Curriculum Vol. 18, 2011, 87–120. De Vreese, C. H. (2004). The effects of frames in political television news on issue interpretation and frame salience. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(1), 36-52. De Vreese, C. H. (2005). News framing: Theory and typology. Information Design Journal+ Document Design 13(1), 51-62. De Vreese, C. H., Boomgaarden, H. G., & Semetko, H. A. (2011). (In)direct framing Effects: The Effects of News Media framing on Public Support for Turkish 374 Membership in the European Union. Communication Research, 38(2), 179-205. doi: 10.1177/0093650210384934. Debelo, A. R. (2012). Emerging Ethnic Identities and Inter‐Ethnic Conflict: The Guji–Burji Conflict in South Ethiopia. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 12(3), 517-533. DeKlein, K. (1994). How You Can Be An Effective Leader. Meg Penstone. Accessed on 2 October, 2013 from http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/rural/ facts/94-081.htm. Deutsch, M. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict. Yale: University Press, New Haven. Dike, V. (2008). Leadership, politics, and social change: Nigeria and the struggle for survival. California: AEA Ltd. Dike, V. E. (2005). Corruption in Nigeria: A new paradigm for effective control. Africa Economic Analysis, 1-22. Dimitrova, D. V., & Kostadinova, P. (2013). Identifying Antecedents of the Strategic Game Frame: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 90(1), 75-88. doi: 10.1177/1077699012468739. Do, Q. T., & Iyer, L. (2010). Geography, poverty and conflict in Nepal. Journal of Peace Research, 47(6), 735-748. Douglas C. M. (1995). Federal Agency Use of Audited Self-Regulation as a Regulatory Technique, 47 Supra note 14, 110-12. Doyle, G. (2002). Media ownership: The economics and politics of convergence and concentration in the UK and European media. Sage. Draman, R. (2003, May). Poverty and Conflict in Africa: Explaining a complex relationship. In Expert Group meeting on Africa-Canada Parliamentary Strengthening Program Addis Ababa, May (pp. 19-23). Druckman, J. N., & Nelson, K. R. (2004). Framing and Deliberation: How Citizens' Conversations Limit Elite Influence. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Oct., 2003), pp. 729-745. Duhé, S. F., & Cho, S. (2009). Network News Coverage of Avian Flu: Identifying the Characteristics of Risk. Electronic News, 3(3), 124-142. doi: 10.1080/19312430903028530 Brawl real. Dunu, I. (2013). Good Governance in Nigeria: What Role for the Media. European Scientific Journal, 9(32). Durante, R., & Knight, B. (2012). Partisan control, media bias, and viewer responses: Evidence from Berlusconi's Italy. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(3), 451-481. Duverger, M. (1980). The Study of Politics. Britain: Thomas Y. Growell Company. Ebegbulem, J. C. (2011). Ethnic Politics and Conflicts in Nigeria: Theoretical Perspective. Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 14. Eck, K. (2009). From Armed Conflict to War: Ethnic Mobilization and Conflict Intensification. International Studies Quarterly, 53(2), 369-388. Edie, C. J. (2003). Politics in Africa: A New Beginning? Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Edosa, E. (2014). National Integration, Citizenship, Political Participation and Democratic Stability in Nigeria. AFRREV IJAH: An International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(3), 61-82. Edward, P. (2006). The ethical poverty line: a moral quantification of absolute poverty. Third World Quarterly, 27(2), 377-393. Edwards, R., & Mauthner, M. (2002). Ethics and feminist research: Theory and practice. In M. Mauthner, T. Miller, M. Birch, & J. Jessop (Eds.), Ethics in qualitative research (pp. 14–31). London, United Kingdom: Sage. Edy, J. A., & Meirick, P. C. (2007). Wanted, Dead or Alive: Media Frames, Frame Adoption, and Support for the War in Afghanistan. Journal of Communication 57(1) 119–141. Egwu, S. G. (2001). Ethnic and religious violence in Nigeria. Jos: St. Stephen Book House. Eifert, B., Miguel, E., & Posner, D. N. (2010). Political competition and ethnic identification in Africa. American Journal of Political Science, 54(2), 494-510. Einarsen, S., Aasland, M. S., & Skogstad, A. (2007). Destructive leadership behaviour: A definition and conceptual model. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 207-216. Eisenberg, E. M., Goodall Jr, H. L., & Trethwey, A. (2010). Organizational communication: Balancing creativity and constraint. Macmillan. Eisenberg, E., & Riley, P. (2001). A communication approach to organizational culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Ekpenyong, O. A., Ukommi, A. S., & Agha, E. O. (2010). Poverty: A potent conflict escalator in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Bangladesh Sociological Society,7(1), 33. Ekwujuru, P. (2009). ADVAN moves for functional ABC establishment. Vanguard Newspaper. Retrieved March 8, 2016 from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/07/ advan-moves-for-functional-abcestablishment/. Elaigwu, J. I. (2005). Crisis and Conflict Management in Nigeria Since 1980. Kaduna: Baraka Press and Publishers Ltd, 28-29. Ellis-Christensen, T. (2013). What Is Realistic Conflict Theory? Retrieved on October, 14 2013 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-realistic-conflict theory.htm. El-Nawawy M and Powers S (2010) Al-Jazeera English: a conciliatory medium in a conflictdriven environment? Global Media and Communication 6(1): 61–84. Embassy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: History of Nigeria. Accessed on 6 Novemeber, 2013 from http://www.nigerianembassy.or.kr/nigeria/history. asp. Encyclopaedia of nations (2013). Retrieved from http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/africa/nigeria-ethnicgroups.html#ixzz2sjhpgws2 on 4th may 2013. Engel, U. (2005).Violent conflict and conflict prevention in africa: an alternative research agenda. In Engel, U., Gentili, A., & Chabal, P. (eds.). Is Violence Inevitable in Africa? Theories of conflict and approaches to conflict prevention (Vol. 1). Brill Academic Pub. Entman, R. & Pellicano, L. (2009). Nature, sources, and effects of news framing. In: Wahl-Jorgensen K and Hanitzsch T (eds) The Handbook of Journalism Studies. New York: Routledge, 175–190. Entman, R. (1993). Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication 43(4): 51–58. Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the KAL and Iran Air incidents. Journal of Communication 41, 6-13. Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections of Power: framing News, Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections of power: framing news, public opinion, and U.S. foreign foreign policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Entman, R. M. (2007). Framing bias: Media in the distribution of power. Journal of communication, 57(1), 163-173. Entman, R. M. (2010). Media framing biases and political power: Explaining slant in news of Campaign 2008. Journalism, 11(4), 389-408. doi: 10.1177/1464884910367587. Eriksen, T. H. (1996). Ethnicity, race, class and nation. In Hutchinson, J. and Smith A. D. (eds), Ethnicity. London: Oxford University Press, 28_31. Erni, J. N. (2009). War, ‘incendiary media’ and international human rights law. Media, Culture & Society 31(6): 867–886. Esman, M. (1994). Ethnic Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Esteban, J., Mayoral, L., & Ray, D. (2012). Ethnicity and conflict: Theory and facts. Science, 336(6083), 858-865. Eyles, J. D. (1996). “Poverty as Inequality: A Case Study. Progress in Human Geography, 6: 55-64. Henderson, J.V., Shalizi Z. & Venables, A. J. (2001). “Geography and development”. Journal of Economic Geography, 1(1): 81-105. Eyo, I. E. (1980). “An Analysis of Major Psychological Problems of a Developing Nation“ In Amucheazi, E.C (ed.) Readings is Social Sciences Issues on National Development, Enugu: North Dimension Publishers. Ezechukwu, U. (2000). Is Nigeria breaking up? West Africa. Modern African Studies 37(2): 241-286. Fagbehun, O. (2013). Nigeria’s Democracy and the Crisis of Political Instability: An Audit of the Electoral System. Paper presented at the 12 Anniversary Lecture organized by the Political and Legislative Powers Bureau of Lagos State Government in conjunction with the June 12 Coalition on 12th June, 2013. Fairhurst, J., & Sarr, R. (1996). The art of framing: Managing the language of leadership. San Franciso, CA: Jossey-Bass. Fawcett, L. (2002). Why peace journalism isn’t news. Journalism Studies 3(2): 213–223. Fawehinmi, G. (2003). Ethnic Clashes Erupt in Southern Oil Town: Ethno-Net Publication. Fayeye, J. O. (2006). Ethnic Militas: National Security, Democracy and Development. Democracy and Development in Nigeria Social Issues and External Relations, 3, 114-123. Fearon, J. & Laitin, (2000). Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity. International Organizations 54, no. 4 : 845–877, 850. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2001). Terrorism 2000/2001. Washington D.C: FBI Publication, Government Printing office. Ferguson, B. (2005). Tribal Warfare and ‘Ethnic’ Conflict. Cultural Survival Quarterly 29, no. 1: 19. Field, M. J., & Lo, B. (Eds.). (2009). Conflict of interest in medical research, education, and practice. National Academies Press. Fisher, S. (2000). Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action. London: Zed. Fisher, S., Ludin, J., Williams, S., Ibrahim, A. D., Smith, R. & Williams, S. (2000). Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action. London: Zed Books. Flodgren, G., Parmelli, E., Doumit, G., Gattellari, M., O’Brien, M. A., Grimshaw, J., & Eccles, M. P. (2011). Local opinion leaders: effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 8(8). Flores, K. L. (2012). "Leadership is behaving and acting like a leader": A narrative exploration of the life stories of three Latino leaders in healthcare. (Doctoral Thesis). University of Nebraska – Lincoln. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/aglecdiss/92. Florquin, N., & Berman, E. G. (Eds.). (2005). Armed and aimless: Armed groups, guns and human security in the ECOWAS region. Small Arms Survey. Flynn, L. R., Goldsmith, R. E., & Eastman, J. K. (1996). Opinion leaders and opinion seekers: Two new measurement scales. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(2), 137-147. Folami, O. M., & Folami, A. O. (2013). Climate change and inter-ethnic conflict in Nigeria. Peace Review, 25(1), 104-110. Forrester, J. (1991). The Seductions of Psychoanalysis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Francis, D. J. (2011). Peace and conflict studies: An African overview of basic concepts. In Best (ed.), Introduction to peace and conflict studies in West Africa (pp. 15-34). Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited. Freelon, D. G. (2010). ReCal: Intercoder reliability calculation as a web service. International Journal of Internet Science, 5(1), 20-33. Frey, L., Botan, C. H., & Kreps, G. (2000). Investigating communication. NY: Allyn & Bacon. Frohardt, M., & Temin, J. (1997). Use and abuse of media in vulnerable societies. Foreign Affairs, 15. Frynas, J. G. (1998). “Political Instability and Business: Focus on Shell in Nigeria”, Third World Quarterly, 19. No. 3. Furlong, G. T. (2005). The conflict resolution toolbox: Models & maps for analyzing, diagnosing, and resolving conflict. Mississauga, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada. Galtung, J. (1998). High road, low road: charting the course for peace journalism, track two: Constructive Approaches to Community and Political Conflict 7(4): 7–10. Galtung, J. (2000). The task of peace journalism. Ethical Perspectives 7(2–3): 162–167. Galtung, J. (2002). Peace journalism – a challenge. In Kempf, W., Luostarinen, H. (eds.) Journalism and the New World Order: Studying War and the Media. Göteborg: Nordicom, 259–272. Galtung, J. (2003). "Peace Journalism." Media Asia 30(3): 3. Galtung, J. (2006). Peace journalism as an ethical challenge. Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition 1(2): 1–5. Galtung, J., & Fischer, D. (2013). High road, low road: Charting the course for peace journalism. In Johan Galtung (pp. 95-102). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Galtung, J., & Ruge, M. H. (1965). ‘The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Foreign Newspapers’, Journal of International Peace Research 2(1): 64–91. Galtung,J. (1992). The Way is the Goal: Gandhi Today, Gujarath Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1–37. Gans, H. J. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Pantheon Books. Gerth, M. M., Russi, L., & Siegert, G. (2012). Media economics management division. Retrieved on December 23, 2015 from http://www.ipmz.uzh.ch/Abteilungen/Medienoekonomie/Forschung/Arbeitspapiere/09_-_mag_lr_GS_-_ Functional_values_and_brand_personality.pdf. Ghanem, S. (1996). Filling in the tapestry: The second level of agenda setting. In M. McCombs, D. L. Shaw, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Communication and democracy. Exploring the intellectual frontier in agenda-setting theory 3–14. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. DOI:10.1038/bdj. 192 British Dental Journal 2008; 204: 291-295. Gilley, B. (2005). Against the Concept of Ethnic Conflict. Third World Quarterly 25, no. 6 pp.1155–1166. Gilligan, M. and Johns, L. (2012). “Formal models of international institutions”, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 15, pp. 221-243. Gitlin, T. (1979). “The Whole World,” 249-50, Herbert Gans, Deciding What’s News, New York: 78-80. Gitlin, T. (2003). The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. California: University of California Press. Gitlin,T. (1980). The whole world is watching. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Goffman, E. (1974). Framing analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Goldratt, E.M., (1990). What is this Thing Called Theory of Constraints and how should it be implemented? North River Press, Croton-on-Hudson, New York. Gough, S. & Scott, W. (2000). ‘Exploring the purposes of qualitative data coding in educational enquiry: insights from recent research’, Educational Studies, 26, 339–54. Greene, J. C. (2006). Toward a methodology of mixed methods social inquiry. Research in the Schools, 13(1), 93–98. Greene, J. C. (2007). Mixed methods in social inquiry. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gross K. (2000). The limits of framing: how framing effects may be limited or enhanced by individual level predispositions. Presented at Annu. Meet. Midwest Polit. Sci. Assoc., Chicago, IL. Guest, G., Bunce, A., Johnson, L., (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18 (1) 59-82. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage. Guichaoua, Y. (2007). “Who joins ethnic militia? A survey of the Oodua People’s Congress in South Western Nigeria” HiCN working paper. Gwadabe, M. R. (2015). Visual framing of the Boko Haram Conflict in the Nigerian Press: A Content Analysis of Leadership and This Day Newspapers. Retrieved on March 4, 2016 from https://www.academia.edu/9972308. Hackett, R. A. (2007). Journalism versus peace? Notes on a problematic relationship. Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition, 2(1), 47-53. Hackett, R. A. and B. Schroeder (2008) ‘Does Anybody Practice Peace Journalism? A CrossNational Comparison of Press Coverage of the Afghanistan and Israeli–Hezbollah Wars’, Peace and Policy 13(1): 26–47. Hackett, R. I. (2003). Managing or manipulating religious conflict in the Nigerian media. Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media, Religion and Culture. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 47-64. Hackett, R., & Zhao, Y. (1998). Sustaining Democracy? Journalism and the Politics of Objectivity. Toronto: Garamond Press. Hackman, M., & Johnson, C. (2004). Leadership: A communication perspective, (4th edition). Long Grove, IL: Waveland. Hall, R. (2012). Mixed methods: In search of a paradigm. Vortrag. Retrieved 4th November, 2015 from: http://www. auamii.com/proceedings_Phuket_ 2012/Hall.pdf. Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (Eds.). (2011). Comparing media systems beyond the western world. Cambridge University Press. Halliru, T. (2012). Ethno-Religious and Political Conflicts: A Study of North-Eastern Region of Nigeria (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Utara Malaysia). Halloran, J. D., Elliott, P. R. C., & Murdock, G. (1970). Demonstrations and communication: A case study (pp. 298-9). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hamelink, C. J. (2008). Media between warmongers and peacemakers. Media, War & Conflict 1(1): 77–83. Hamilton, J.T. (2004). All the News That’s Fit to Sell. How the Market Transforms Information into News. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hänggli, R. (2012). Key Factors in Frame Building How Strategic Political Actors Shape News Media Coverage. American Behavioral Scientist, 56(3), 300-317. Hanitzsch, T. (2004). Journalists as peacekeeping force? Peace journalism and mass communication theory. Journalism Studies 5(4): 483–495. Hanitzsch, T. (2007). Situating peace journalism in journalism studies: a critical appraisal. Conflict & Communication Online 6(2). Available at: http://www.cco.regener-online.de/2007_2/pdf/ hanitzsch.pdf (assessed 8 September 2013). Hannan, M. T. (1979). The Dynamics of Ethnic Boundaries in Modern States. Pp. 253-275 in National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970, edited by John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hanson, W. E., Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L. P., Petska, K. S., & Creswell, J. D. (2005). Mixed methods research designs in counseling psychology. Journal of counseling psychology, 52(2), 224. Haokip, T. (2013). The Kuki–Naga Conflict In The Light Of Recent Publications. South Asia Research, 33(1), 77-87. Harrell, M. C., & Bradley, M. A. (2009). Data collection methods. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Rand National Defense Research Inst santa monica ca. Harris, D. R., & Sim, J. J. (2002). Who is multiracial? Assessing the complexity of lived race. American Sociological Review, 614-627. Hassan, M. (2010). Conflict Curve/stages of conflict Peace and Collaborative Development Network. Accessed 0n 27, October, 2013 from http://www.internationalpeaceandconflict.org/ profiles/blogs/conflictcurvestages. Hastie, R., & Park, B. (1986). The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the task is memory-based or on-line. Psychological Review, 93, 258–268. Hendricks, C. (1995). The national question, ethnicity and the state: some reflections for South Africa. Paper given at Biennial Conference, African Political Science Association, Ibadan, Nigeria. Hewitt, J. J. (2012). The peace and conflict instability ledger: Ranking states on future risks. In: Hewitt, J. J., Wilkenfeld J and Gurr TR, with Heldt B (eds.) Peace and Conflict 2012. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, pp. 4–17. Himelfarb, S. & Chabalowski, M. (2008). Media, conflict prevention and peacebuilding: mapping the edges. Washington, United States Institute of peace: 5. Holstein, G. (1997). Active interviewing. In D. Silverman, Qualitative research: Theory, Method & Practice (ed). London: 113-129. Horowitz, D. (2001). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. California: University of California Press. Howard, R. (2001). "Media and Peacebuilding: Mapping the Possibilities." Activate winter. Howard, R. (2005). The Media's role in war and peacebuilding. Postconflict development, meeting new challenges. G. Junne and W. Verkoren. London, Lynne Rienner Publishers: 117-128. Howard, R., F. Rolt, et al. (2003). The power of the media: a handbook for peacebuilders. Utrecht, European Center for Conflict Prevention. Huang, Y. & Fahmy, S. (2013). Picturing a journey of protest or a journey of harmony? Comparing the visual framing of the 2008 Olympic torch relay in the US versus the Chinese press. Media, war and conflict, pp. 191-206. Human Rights Watch (2003 ). Nigeria The O'odua People's Congress: Fighting Violence with Violence. New York: Human Rights Watch. Hutchison, M. L. (2013). Tolerating Threat? The Independent Effects of Civil Conflict on Domestic Political Tolerance. Journal of Conflict Resolution. Ibeanu, O. (2003). Communal conflict and population displacement in Nigeria: An Exploratory Analysis. In Noli O. (Ed.) Communal Conflict and Population displacement, Enugu: PACREP. Ibeanu, O. (2011). Conceptualising Peace. In Best (ed.), Introduction to peace and conflict studies in West Africa (pp. 3-14). Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited. Ibrahim, J. (1994). Political exclusion, democratization, and dynamics of ethnicity in Niger. Africa Today. vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 15-39. Igartua, J.J., & Cheng, L. (2009). Moderating effect of group cue while processing news on immigration: is the framing effect a heuristic process? Journal of Communication. 59: 726–49. Ikpe, U. B. (2009). The patrimonial state and inter-ethnic conflicts in Nigeria.Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(4), 679-697. Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, & International Media Support (Association). (2004). Conflict Sensitive Journalism [electronic Resource]: a Handbook. IMPACS. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) (2006). Nigeria: Heightened Risk of Violence and Displacement Ahead of 2007 Elections. Publication of IDMC. International Crisis Group (2006). Nigeria: Want in the Midst of Plenty. Dakar/Brussels: International Crisis Group. Irobi, E. G. (2005). Ethnic Conflict Management in Africa: A Comparative Case Study of Nigeria and South Africa. Beyond Interactivity. Retrieved 7 July, 2013 from http://www.beyondintractability.org/casestudy/ irobi-ethnic. Isa, M. I. (2001). The State and Institutional Responses to Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria: The case of Jukun/Chamba and Kuteb communinal conflict of Takum Local Government, Taraba State. Africa at crossroass: Complex political emergencies in the 21st century, UNESCO/ENA. www..ethnonetafricca.org/ pubs/crossroads. Ishaku, J. (2009). Boko Haram. Jos: Courier Communications Ltd. Ismayilov, G. G. (2008). Ethnic Conflicts and Their Causes. Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(4), 50-63. Ito, Y. (2002). Climate of Opinion. Kuuki and Democracy. In Gundskunst W. (ed.) Communication Yearbook, 26. Lawrence Erlbaum. Iyengar, S. (1991). Is Anyone Responsible?: How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Jackson, J. W., & Purdue, U. (1993). Record. The Psychological Record, 43(3), 395-413. Jacob, H. (2012). Conflict mapping. Retrieved April 23, 2013 from https://www.google.com/webhp?source= search_app&gws_rd=ssl#q=Jacob+(2012)+Conflict+can+ be+traced+back+to+the+beginning. Jalali, R., & Lipset, S. M. (1992). Racial and ethnic conflicts: A global perspective. Political Science Quarterly, 107(4), 585-606. James, C. C., & Özdamar, Ö. (2005). Religion as a Factor in Ethnic Conflict: Kashmir and Indian Foreign Policy. Terrorism and Political Violence, 17(3), 447-467. doi: 10.1080/09546550590929219. Jenkins, J. C. & Augustine J. K. (1990). “Explaining Military Coups D’Etat: Black Africa, 1957-1 984.”American Sociological Review 55:861-875. Jeong, H. (2008). Understanding Conflict and Conflict Analysis. London: Sage. Jiwani, Y. (2006). Discourses of Denial: Mediations of Race, Gender, and Violence. Vancouver: UBC Press. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112–133. Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica 47, 263–289. Kahneman, D. (2003). Maps of bounded rationality: A perspective on intuitive judgment and choice. In T. Fra¨ngsmyr (Ed.), Les Prix Nobel: The Nobel Prizes 2002 (pp. 449–489). Stockholm: Nobel Foundation. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39. Kajornboon, A. B. (2005). Using interviews as research instruments. E-Journal for Research Teachers, 2(1). Kalyango, J. & Vultee, F. (2012). Public attitudes toward media control and incitement of conflicts in Eastern Africa. Media, War & Conflict 5(2) 119–137. Karnes, K. O. (2008). "What’s the Story? Framing of Health Issues by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Major Newspapers: A Qualitative Analysis" (2008). Communication Theses. Paper 36. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/communication_theses. Kaufman, E. (2002). "A broadcasting strategy to win media wars." The Washington Quarterly 25(2): 115-127. Kee, C. P., Ibrahim, F., Ahmad, F., & Khiang, C. C. (2012). Frame Contention between News Sources and News Media: Framing the Dispute of Teaching Mathematics and Science in English. Asian Social Science, 8(5), p16. Kelloway, E. K., Mullen, J., & Francis, L. (2006). Divergent effects of transformational and passive leadership on employee safety. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(1), 76−86. Kempf, W. (2002). Conflict coverage and conflict escalation. Konstanz: Bibliothek der Universität Konstanz. Kempf, W. (2003). Constructive conflict coverage–A social-psychological research and development program. Conflict & communication online, 2(2). Kempf, W. (2007). Peace journalism: A tightrope walk between advocacy journalism and constructive conflict coverage. Conflict and Communication Online, 6(2). Kertzer, D. I., & Fricke, T. E. (1997). Anthropological demography: Toward a new synthesis. University of Chicago Press. Keyton, J. (2015). Communication research: Asking questions, finding answers (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education. Kim, S. H., Scheufele, D. A., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Think about it this way: Attribute agenda-setting function of the press and the public's evaluation of a local issue. Journalism & mass communication quarterly, 79(1), 7-25. Kiousis, S., Mitrook, M., Wu, X., & Seltzer, T. (2006). First-and second-level agendabuilding and agenda-setting effects: Exploring the linkages among candidate news releases, media coverage, and public opinion during the 2002 Florida gubernatorial election. Journal of Public Relations Research, 18(3), 265-285. Kirk-Greene, A. H. M. (1967). ‘The peoples of Nigeria’, African Affairs, vol. 66, no. 262, pp. 3_11. Kolawale, T. O., Abubakar, M. B., Owonibi, E. & Adebayo, A. A. (2012). “Gender and Party Politics in Africa with Reference to Nigeria.” Journal of Education Research, 1(7), 132-144. Konijin, E.A., Utz, S., Tanis, M., & Barnes, S. B. (2008). Mediated interpersonal communication. New York: Routledge. Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Problems and opportunities in agenda‐setting research. Journal of communication, 43(2), 100-127. Kostadinova, P., & Dimitrova, D. V. (2012). Communicating policy change: Media framing of economic news in post-communist Bulgaria. European Journal of Communication, 27(2), 171-186. doi: 10.1177/0267323112449097. Kposowa, A. J., & Jenkins, J. C. (1993). The structural sources of military coups in postcolonial africa, 1957-1984. American Journal of Sociology, 126-163. Kreuzer, P. (2002). Applying theories of ethno-cultural conflict and conflict resolution to collective violence in Indonesia. Reports Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, 63. Kriesberg, L. (2007). Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, 3rd Ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. Kriesberg, L. (2010). Conflict: phases. In Nigel, Y. (ed.). The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace. Oxford University Press Volume 1. Pp. 399-403. Kukah, M. H. (1993). Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum. Kukah, M. H. (1996). Public Perceptions of the Press in Nigeria. In Journalism in Nigeria: Issues and Perspectives, O. Dare and U. Adidi. (eds.) Lagos: National Union of Journalists, Lagos State Council. Kunovich, R. M., & Hodson, R. (2002). Ethnic diversity, segregation, and inequality: A structural model of ethnic prejudice in Bosnia and Croatia. The Sociological Quarterly, 43(2), 185-212. Kunst, L. & Kratzer, J. (2007). Diffusion of innovation through social networks of children. Young Consumers, 8(1), 36-51. Kuper, L. (1971). Plural Societies: Perspectives and Problems. In: L Kuper, MG Smith (Eds.): Pluralism in Africa. University of California Press, pp. 37-46. Kurspahic, K. (2003). Prime Time Crime: Balkan Media in War and Peace. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace. Kussendrager, N. & van der Lugt, D. (2002). Basisboek journalistiek. Groningen/Houten, Wolters Nordhoff. Kuypers, J. (2002). Press Bias and Politics: How the Media Frame Controversial Issues. Westport, CT: Praeger. Kvale, S. (2007). Doing interviews. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lange, M. (2009). The role of media in conflict prevention. Brussels: Folke Bernadotte Academy. Larkin, B. (1997). Hausa Dramas and the Rise of Video Culture in Nigera. In Nigerian Video Films, edited by J. Haynes. Jos: Nigerian Film Corporation. Lau, R. W. (2004). Critical realism and news production. Media, Culture & Society, 26(5), 693-711. LeBlanc, S. (2003). Constant Battles. New York: St Martin’s Press. Lecheler, S., & de Vreese, C. H. (2012). News framing and Public Opinion: A Mediation Analysis of framing Effects on Political Attitudes. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(2), 185-204. doi:10.1177/1077699011430064. Lecheler, S., & de Vreese, C. H. (2013). What a Difference a Day Makes? The Effects of Repetitive and Competitive News framing Over Time. Communication Research, 40(2), 147-175. doi: 10.1177/0093650212470688. Lederach, K. (1997): “A Contribution to the Current Debate”. Cambridge: Gunn and Heinn. Lee, R. E. (2003). Life and Times of Cultural Studies: The Politics and Transformation of the Structures of Knowledge. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. Lee, S. T. & Maslog, C. (2005). War or peace journalism? Asian newspaper coverage of conflicts. Journal of Communication 55(2): 311–329. Lempp, F. (2016). A logic-based model for resolving conflicts. International Journal of Conflict Management, 27(1). Leung, L. (2009). Mediated violence as ‘global news’: co-opted ‘performance’ in the framing of the WTO. Media, Culture & Society 31(2): 251–269. Lewicki, R., Saunders, D., & Minton, J., (1999). Negotiation. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Burr Ridge, Illinois. Lewis, P. (2006). The dysfunctional state of Nigeria. Short of the Goal: US Policy and Poorly Performing States, Washington DC: Center for Global Development, 83-116. Lewis, P. (2007). Identity, institutions and democracy in Nigeria. Afro barometer Working Paper No. 68. Lloyd, R. B. (2010). Conflict in Africa. The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 1(2), 171-186. doi: 10.1080/21520844.2010.502566. Loewenberg, S. (2009). Open communication. In: De Rivera J (ed.) Handbook on Building Cultures of Peace. New York: Springer, 167–180. Lombard, M., Snyder‐Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2002). Content analysis in mass communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 587-604. Loyn, D. (2007). Good journalism or peace journalism. Conflict & Communication Online 6(2). Lynch, J. & Galtung, J. (2010). Reporting conflict. Transcend Media Service. Retrieved on 5, October, 2013 from https://www.transcend.org/tms/?p=5991. Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005). Peace journalism: a global dialogue for democracy and democratic media. In: Hackett R and Zhao Y (eds) Democratizing Global Media: One World, Many Struggles. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 269–288. Lynch, J. (2006). What’s so great about peace journalism. Global Media Journal, Mediterranean Edition, 1(1), 74-87. Lynch, J. (2008) Debates in Peace Journalism. Sydney: Sydney University Press. Lynch, J., & McGoldrick, A. (2012). Reframing South African TV news as peace journalism: interim findings from a field experiment. Communicare: Journal for Communication Sciences in Southern Africa, 32(1), 78-98. Lynch, J., & McGoldrick, A. (eds.) (2005). Peace Journalism. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Hawthorn Press. Macnamara, J. (2005). Media content analysis: Its uses, benefits and best practice methodology. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, 6(1), 1–34 Maher, T. M. (2001). Framing: An emerging paradigm or a phase of agenda setting. Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world, 83-94. Makama, S. D. (2011). ‘Nigeria's Population Now 168m, Hits 221m in 2020’ in ThisDay Newspaper, 27 October, 2011. Mandelzis, L. & Peleg, S. (2008). ‘War Journalism as Media Manipulation: Seesawing between the Second Lebanon War and the Iranian Nuclear Threat’, Peace and Policy 13(1): 62–73. Manning, P. (2001). News and News Sources. A Critical Introduction. London: Sage. Mason, J. (1996). Qualitative research. Sage publication London. Matthes, J. (2009). What's in a frame? A content analysis of media framing studies in the world's leading communication journals, 1990-2005. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 86(2), 349-367. Matthes, J. (2009). What's in a Frame? A Content Analysis of Media framing Studies in the World's Leading Communication Journals, 1990-2005. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 2009 86: 349. DOI: 10.1177/107769900908600206. Matthes, J., & Kohring, M. (2008). The content analysis of media frames: Toward improving reliability and validity. Journal of Communication, 58(2), 258-279. Maundu, C. M. (2014). Conflict-sensitive reporting in Kenya’s print media: a case of Tana River clashes (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). May, T. (1997). Social research: Issues, methods & progress. Open University Press: Buckingham, 2nd Ed. Mayer, B. (2000). The Dynamics of Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. McChesney, R.W. 2000. The political economy of communication and the future of the field. Media, Culture & Society, 22(1): 109-116. McComas, K. A., & Simone, L. M. (2003). Media coverage of conflicts of interest in science. Science Communication, 24(4), 395-419. McCombs, M. (2005). A look at agenda-setting: Past, present and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557. McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public opinion quarterly, 36(2), 176-187. McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1993). The evolution of agenda‐setting research: twenty‐five years in the marketplace of ideas. Journal of communication, 43(2), 58-67. McCombs, M., & Ghanem, S. I. (2001). The convergence of agenda setting and framing. Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world, 67-81. McEvoy, P., & Richards, D. (2006). A critical realist rationale for using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11(1), 66–78. McGoldrick, A. (2006). War journalism and ‘objectivity’. Conflict & Communication Online 5(2). Mcleod, D. M. & Hertog, J. K. (2009). “Social Control, Social Change and the Mass Media's Role in the Regulation of Protest Groups” in Demers, D., and Anath, K. V. (eds.) Mass Media, Social Control, and Social Change: A Macrosocial Perspective. Iowa: Iowa State University Press/ Ames. McMahon, R., & Chow-White, P. A. (2011). News media encoding of racial reconciliation: Developing a peace journalism model for the analysis of ‘cold’ conflict. Media, Culture & Society, 33(7), 989-1007. McManus, J. H. (1994). Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? Thousand Oaks. McNamara, C. (2009). General guidelines for conducting interviews. Retrieved July 4, 2015, from http://managementhelp.org/evaluatn/intrview.htm. McQuail, D. (1994). Mass communication theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McQuail, D. (2005). McQuail’s mass communication theory (5th ed.). London: Sage. Meagher, K. (2007). Hijacking civil society: the inside story of the Bakassi Boys vigilante group of south-eastern Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 45(01), 89-115. Meier, W. A. (2000). Media Ownership–Does It Matter? Meir cites Bagdikian, 300. Melone, S., Terzis, G., & Beleli, O. (2002). Using the media for conflict transformation: The common ground experience, Berghof Research Center: 20. Merriam, S.B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Mertens, D. M. (2003). Mixed methods and the politics of human research: The transformative-emancipatory perspective. In A. Tashakkori and C. Teddlie, (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral Research (pp. 135–164). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mgbejume, O. (1991). Constraints on mass media policies in Nigeria. Africa Media Review, 5(2), 47-57. Miller, D. (2005). The age of the fake, Spin Watch, March 14, 2005. Retrieved May 20, 2015 from http://www.spinwatch.org/content/view/128/8/. Mitchell, J. (2007). Remembering the Rwandan genocide: Reconsidering the role of local and global media. Global Media Journal 6 (11). Mnasri, S. (2008). Framing in leadership communication: Strategies, breakdowns and outcomes. Graduate School Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/410. Moore, C. (2003). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Moran-Ellis, J., Alexander, V. D., Cronin, A., Dickinson, M., Fielding, J., Sleney, J., &. Thomas, H. (2006). Triangulation and integration: Processes, claims and implications. Qualitative Research, 6(1), 45–59. Moreira, S., Cardoso, C., & Nalla, M. K. (2015). Citizen confidence in private security guards in Portugal. European Journal of Criminology, 12(2), 208-225. Morgan, D. L. (2007). Paradigms lost and pragmatism regained: Methodological implications of combining qualitative and quantitative methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 48–76. Moser, C. O., & Holland, J. (1997). Urban poverty and violence in Jamaica. World Bank Publications. Muhammad, R. A. (2013, August 19). Sultan: we will keep working for united Nigeria. Daily Trust. Retrieved from http://dailytrust.info/index.php/top -stories/3435-sultan. Muhammed, A. Y., Ayinla, S. A. & Adeoye, M. N. (2006). “Ethnic Discrimination and Religious Intolerance: An Overview of Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria.” In O. Akinwunmi., Okpeh, O. O, J. D. Gwamna (eds.) Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria during the 19th and 20th Centuries. Makurdi: Aboki Publishers. 605-617. Munro, E., Holmes, L., & Ward, H. (2005). Researching vulnerable groups: Ethical issues and the effective conduct of research in local authorities. British Journal of Social Work, 35, 1023–1024. Munteanu, N. A. (2011). Mass-Media Role In Conflict Prevention. Land Forces Academy Review. Retrieved May 2nd 2013 from: http://www.readperiodicals.com/201101/2300043321. html#ixzz2Ry0KxSM4. Murer, J. S. (2012) Ethnic Conflict: An Overview of Analyzing and framing Communal Conflicts From Comparative Perspectives, Terrorism and Political Violence, 24:4, 561-580, DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2012.700614. Murer, J. S. (2012). Ethnic Conflict: An Overview of Analyzing and framing Communal Conflicts From Comparative Perspectives, Terrorism and Political Violence, 24:4, 561-580, DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2012.700614. Musa, A. & Ferguson, N. (2013). Enemy framing and the politics of reporting religious conflicts in the Nigerian press. Media, War & Conflict, 6(1), 7–20. DOI: 10.1177/1750635212469909. Mutoko, W. R. (2014). Challenges of access to markets and opportunities for small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMES) in Botswana. European Scientific Journal, 10(10). NAN, (December, 2013). Nigerians in U.S. condemn threat of violence in 2015. Retrieved January 3, 2014 from http://www.nanngronline.com/section/ defencesecurity. Nanda, S. & Richard, L.W. (2006). Cultural Anthropology. 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Custom Publishing. Neale, M.A., & Bazerman, M.H., (1985). The effects of framing and negotiator overconfidence on bargaining behaviors and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal 28, 34–49. Nelson, J. M. (1998). Poverty, inequality, and conflict in developing countries. New York: Rockefeller Brothers Fund. Nelson, T. E., Clawson, R. A., & Oxley, Z. M. (1997). Media framing of a civil liberties conflict and its effect on tolerance. American Political Science Review, 91(03), 567-583. Nelson, T. E., Oxley, Z. M., & Clawson, R. A. (1997). Toward a psychology of framing effects. Political behavior, 19(3), 221-246. Nesbitt-Larking, P. (2001). From experience to editorial: gatekeeping, agenda-setting, priming and framing. In: Nesbitt-Larking P, Politics, Society and the Media. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 315–348. Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Neumann, R. & Fahmy, S. (2012). Analyzing the spell of war: A war/peace framing analysis of the 2009 visual coverage of the Sri Lankan civil war in western newswires. Mass Communication and Society, pp. 169-200. Neumann, R., & Fahmy, S. (2012). Analyzing the Spell of War: A War/Peace framing Analysis of the 2009 Visual Coverage of the Sri Lankan Civil War in Western Newswires. Mass Communication and Society, 15(2), 169-200. New York Times, (17 Aug. 2011)."Islamist group with possible Qaeda links upends Nigeria". Ngara, C. O., & Ayabam, A.T. (2013). Women in politics and decision- making in Nigeria: challenges and prospects. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(8), 47-58. Nicholson, M. (1989). Formal Theories in International Relations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Nielsen, F. (1980). The Flemish movement in Belgium after World War II: a dynamic analysis. American Sociological Review, 76-94. Nielsen, F. (1985). “Toward a Theory of Ethnic Solidarity in Modern Societies.” American Sociological Review 50:133-149. NigerianBestForum, (June 22, 2008)."History of Arewa Consultative Forum". Nnaemeka, T. I. (1991). ‘Issue legitimation, Mass Media Functions and Public Knowledge of Social Issues’. (PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota). Nnoli, O. (1978). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimension. Nnoli, O. (1985). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: Fourth Dimensional Publishers, Enugu. Nnoli, O. (1989). Ethnic Politics in Africa, AAPS Books Project Series, No. 1, Dakar: AAPS. Nwabunkeonye, U. P. (2014). Challenges to Women Active Participation in Politics in Nigeria. Sociology and Anthropology 2(7): 284-290. Nwolise, O. B. C. (2001). Ige: time to Redefine Nigeria’s Concept of National Security, and Nascent Democracy. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 9(3), 21-36. Oakland, K. (Saturday Sep 3rd, 2005). “Race and Racism.” Daily Kos. Retrieved on 12, October, 2013 from http://www.dailykos.com/storyonly/. Obakhedo, N.O. (2011). Curbing Electoral Violence in Nigeria: The Imperative of Political Education. African Research Review, 5(5), pp.99-110. Obasi, N. K., (2002). Ethnic Militias, Vigilantes and Separatist Groups in Nigeria. Third Millenium Ltd. Abuja, Nigeria. Oetzel, J. Dhar, S. & Kirschbaum, K. (2007). Intercultural Conflict from a Multilevel Perspective: Trends, Possibilities, and Future Directions, Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 36:3, 183-204, DOI: 10.1080/17475750701737124.